5-15 Billion+

6 December. Carbon (the basis of organic life), oxygen, and other elements were created from hydrogen and helium in the fury of burning supernovae. Having arisen when the stars were formed, the elements of which life is built, and thus we ourselves, might be thought of as stardust. (Dauber & Muller, 1996)

3.75 Billion

Mixed deposits of ferrous and ferric oxide suggest the presence of free atmospheric oxygen. This could be construed as evidence for photosynthetic activity. (de Duve, 1995)

3.5 Billion

Origination of the oldest dated stromatolites. These layered geological formations are built by successive generations of blue green algae (cyanobacteria.) (de Duve, 1995) Lower Precambrian rocks in South Africa contain what is possibly the earliest known evidence of cellular organisms, resembling blue green algae. (Bold, Alexopoulos, & Delevoryas, 1980)

2 Billion

Data suggest that by this time in the history of the Earth molecular oxygen began to make a significant difference in the nature of the atmosphere. (de Duve, 1995)

1.6 Billion

Strong evidence indicates that filamentous and unicellular blue green algae existed by this period in the history of the Earth. (Bold, Alexopoulos, & Delevoryas, 1980)

900 Million

Late Precambrian deposits at Bitter Springs, Australia, hold numerous kinds of blue-green and green algae. (Bold, Alexopoulos, & Delevoryas, 1980)

570 Million

Dawning of the Paleozoic era

395 Million

The lower Devonian period. The Scottish Rhynie chert deposit from this period is famous for its excellent representation of Rhynia, one of the earliest vascular plants in the fossil record. By 350 million years BP land plants at last became significant. By the upper Devonian, Calamites (the giant horsetail) achieved abundance (as represented in strata of that age.) We know now that seed bearing plants (Archaeosperma and Spermolithus) are represented in upper Devonian deposits. (Bold, Alexopoulos, & Delevoryas, 1980)

345 Million

This time marks the beginning of the Mississippian period. Together with the Pennsylvanian which followed (through to 225 million years BP), the two periods constitute the age of coal - often called the Carboniferous.

136 Million

With deposits from the Cretaceous period we see the first evidence of flowering plants. (Bold, Alexopoulos, & Delevoryas, 1980)

50,000

Wild date seed were left in the Shanidar Cave of Northern Iraq. Also discovered at that site was evidence that cave dwellers consumed chestnuts, walnuts, pine nuts, and acorns. (Root, 1980)

17,000+

Excavations at Wadi Kubbaniya, Nile Valley (Egypt) reveal charred remains of 25 different plants, including wild nutsedge tubers, acacia seed, cattail rhizomes, and palm fruit. (Levetin & McMahon, 1996)

8000+

The cultivation of grains had an essential role in the development of civilization. By this time period, wheat and barley were Near Eastern food crops. In ancient cultures, barley was the everyday food of the poor. Archeologists have learned that by this time people used flint sickles and grinding stones.

7000

Flax was known in Syria and Turkey, and is apparently the earliest plant source for fiber (used to make linen) as well as an important source of oil (pressed from the seed). By 5000 B.C. we know that various species of flax (Linum) were cultivated/harvested. Evidence shows that flax seed size increased over time, suggesting that humans were selecting for larger seed.

6800

A “large hoard of carbonized lentils,” over 1,000,000 seed, was abandoned in B Yiftah’el, north Israel. The size of this hoard indicates the lentils were under cultivation. (Zohary & Hops, 1994)

6500

Faba bean was known in Israel. Lentil, pea, chickpea, and faba bean constituted the principal pulses for ancient Old World agriculture.

6000

Chili pepper and beans of this date have been discovered in a Peruvian highland valley. Lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus) and regular beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) are known archaeologically from Peru. (Heiser, 1981)

5500

Researchers have discovered evidence of gourds, squashes, beans, and chili peppers in midden levels dating from 5500 to 7000 B.C. in Tamaulipas, Mexico. .

5000

Corn (Zea mays) was cultivated in Meso-America. This important grain would be introduced to Europe by Columbus. [See 1550, China]

5000

Domesticated rice (Oryza sativa) is reported from the Ho-mu-tu site in Chekiang Prov., China. Cabbage seed from this period were discovered in earthen jars in Shensi Province (today cabbages make up 1/4 of all expenditures for vegetables among Chinese families).

4000

Cotton seed dating from this time period have been found in Pakistan.

4000

Grape (Vitis vinifera) is thought to have been cultivated in the area from Afghanistan to the Black Sea.

3000

Sorghum was known in sub-Saharan Africa. [See 1100 B.C., China].

2800

The Fah Shên-Chih Shu details five sacred crops of China: soybeans, rice, wheat, barley, and millet. (Root, 1980)

2750

A coffin from the Egyptian Saqqara Pyramid was made of six layers of wood veneers, sandwiched and glued together like plywood. Cypress (Cupressus), juniper (Juniperus), and cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus) were used. (Connor, 1994)

2737

Tradition credits Chinese Emperor Shen Nung with the first brewing of tea as a beverage. (Levetin & McMahon, 1996)

2000

Pearl millet was cultivated in sub-Saharan Africa.

2000

Since the Bronze Age, olive has figured into the wealth of many Mediterranean populations.

2000

Peach (Prunus persica) and apricot (Prunus armeniaca) were mentioned in Chinese literature before 2000 B.C., where they are considered to be native. It is supposed that apricots were introduced to Greece by Alexander the Great. Certainly the Greeks knew peaches by 332 B.C. Virgil noted the Persian fruit in Rome, circa 50 B.C. By 1571 the Spanish had introduced three kinds of peaches to Mexico. [See 1663; 1977]

1550

A 65ft long medical scroll from Egypt (discovered in 1884 by Georg Ebers and named the Ebers Papyrus) lists about 800 medicinal drugs, including many herbs and spices, among them anise, caraway, cassia, coriander, fennel, cardamon, onions, garlic, thyme, mustard, sesame, fenugreek, saffron, and poppy seed. (Rosengarten, 1969)

1485

Hapshepsut, Queen of Egypt, had 31 myrrh trees imported to Egypt for planting at Thebes as homage to the god Amon. (Rosengarten, 1969)

1370

Chemical tests of red fabrics from Tell el ‘Amara, Egypt show the presence of alizarin, a pigment extracted from madder (Rubia tinctorum.) (Zohary & Hopf, 1994)

1325

Many seed and other plant products were deposited in the Tutankhamen tomb, including watermelon, safflower, emmer wheat, barley, lentils, chickpeas, flax, fenugreek, olive (both leaves and oil), almond, date palm, garlic, cumin, and coriander. (Zohary & Hopf, 1994)

1100

Soybean (Glycine max) long had been domesticated in China. By 300 B.C. it is thought to have taken the role as one of two major food crops for northern China. By A.D.100 soybean was common throughout China and Korea. Lotus also was known to have been a crop by this time.

1000

Archaeological evidence shows peanuts were cultivated at this time in Peru, demonstrating that the peanut is truly native to South America.

1000

By this time it is certain that oats were cultivated, most probably originating as weeds in wheat and barley fields. (Zohary & Hopf, 1994)

c694

Trees bearing wool (cotton) were introduced to Assyria by Sennacherib.

c500

The Susruta-Samhita, an Indian herbal, described 700 different plants of value. This time period in India also provides the earliest known record of banana.

c500

The oldest known Chinese herbal, the Classical Pharmacopeia of Tzu-I was written. Although no version of this book has survived since AD 500, a copy was available to Shen Nung, the writer of the Classical Herbal (which was produced as early as 100 BC.)

c500

It is supposed that the radish was introduced to China from Europe.

c400

Hippocrates wrote numerous treatises on medicinal plants, discussing plants such as saffron, cinnamon, thyme, coriander, mint, and marjoram. (Rosengarten, 1969)

c399

Condemned to death, Socrates was allowed to administer his own sentence by drinking a potion of poison hemlock, the celery-relative Conium maculatum. (Levetin & McMahon, 1996.)

c300

Theophrastus (ca. 372-287 B.C.), the Father of Greek Botany, taught about plants from his own working knowledge of them, experience reflected in the “Inquiry” (Historia Plantarum) and “Causes” (De Causis Plantarum). Text covers 550 kinds of plants, including strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), date palm, figs, and water lilies. His avoidance of more mystical notions about plants made a seemingly auspicious beginning for botanical study. During the middle ages, however, the Theophrastan works were generally unavailable, and second-hand versions were corrupted with misinformation - thus the level of botanical knowledge available in writing actually declined. The rediscovery and printing of his works beginning in 1483 replaced muddled interpretations of plants and helped rekindle an interest in botany. (HNT)

c300

Plants known to the ancient Chinese were discussed by Erh Ya. Other treatments from the period mention cultivated crops such as yam (Dioscorea esculenta) and taro (Colocasia).

250

By this time the Maya are known to have cultivated cacao intensively in Belize.

241

Annual tribute demanded after the conquest of Sicily allowed Rome to provide wheat cheaply to its citizens. War in general brought benefits through the capture of productive acreage, the opening of markets for Roman plantation-produced wine, and the taking of slaves. (Gras, 1946)

216

The south China province of Kweilin (a word that means Cassia Forest) was founded. The Kwei River could be translated as the Cassia River. (Rosengarten, 1969) Cassia refers to the Chinese form of cinnamon, the pungent Cinnamomum cassia.

203

Tribute to Rome from Carthage included 500,000 bushels of wheat and 300,000 bushels of barley. (Root, 1980)

c50

Varro described Roman agriculture, including cultivation of grain (wheat, spelt, & barley - but not rye or oats), legumes, olive, and grapes. By this time Romans had well-developed systems of legume rotation (the use of legumes as a fertilizer crop to return nitrogen to the soil.) (Gras, 1946)

c50

Columnella wrote a treatise on Roman Agriculture, covering many subjects, including the various benefits and difficulties of managing slaves versus tenants on large properties. (Gras, 1946)

c50

Virgil, though not a botanist, gave descriptions and information concerning 164 different plants known to the Greeks in his Georgica. (HNT, 1492 edition) Advice included laying fields fallow and allowing a crop of vetch and lupine (legumes) to mature before sowing wheat. Virgil recommends the scattering of manure as well as ashes. (Gras, 1946)

24

Aelius Gallus, the Egyptian prefect for Augustus’ Roman Empire, led an ill-fated campaign to conquer the South Arabian spice kingdoms. (Rosengarten, 1969)